sociolinguistics

SOCIOLINGUISTICS ( INTRODUCTION)

Any discussion of the relationship between language and society,  or of the various function of language in society, should begin with some attempt to define each of these terms. By such of definition society becomes a very comprehensive concept, but we will soon see how useful such a comprehensive view is because of the very different kinds of society we must consider in the course of the discussion that follow.

We may attempt  an equally comprehensive definition of language. A language is what the members of a particular society speak. However as we shall see, speech in almost any society can take many very different forms, and just what forms we should choose to discuss when we attempt to describe the language of a society may prove to be a contentious matter. Sometimes a society may be plurilingual, that is many speakers may use more than one language. However we define a language. We should also note that our definition of language and society are not independent. And the definition of language  includes in it a reference to society.

The question

1. What the relationship between Data and Theory in methodological concern?

(The question from Shelvira Elsa Dwita)

Answer :  The relationship is towards because any conclusion must be solidly based on evidence. And researc2. What the meaning of Code in knowledge of language?

(The question from Indri Christina)

Answer : Code is the way of communication . Code theory has roots in a particular model of literacy .code is the best understood as a variant of the more traditional ethno and socio.

3. How do you use language as well?

(The questions from Linda Wait)

Answer  : The people can understand about the someone or speaker means and the grammar to use well is something that each speaker knows.

Type of language :

1. Argot

An argot is a language primarily developed to disguise conversation, originally because of a criminal enterprise, though the term is also used loosely to refer to informal jargon.

2. Cant

Cant is somewhat synonymous with argot and jargonand refers to the vocabulary of an in-group that uses it to deceive or exclude nonusers.

3. Colloquial Language

Anything not employed in formal writing or conversation, including terms that might fall under one or more of most of the other categories in this list, is a colloquialism. Colloquial and colloquialismmay be perceived to be pejorative terms, but they merely refer to informal terminology.

Colloquial language — whether words, idiomatic phrases, or aphorisms — is often regionally specific; for example, variations on the term “carbonated beverage” — including soda, pop, and coke —

4. Creole

A creole is a more sophisticated development of a pidgin, derived from two or more parent languages and used by people all ages as a native language.

5. Dialect

A dialect is a way of speaking based on geographical or social factors.

6. Jargon

Jargon is a body of words and phrases that apply to a specific activity or profession, such as a particular art form or athletic or recreational endeavor, or a medical or scientific subject. Jargon is often necessary for precision when referring to procedures and materials integral to a certain pursuit.

However, in some fields, jargon is employed to an excessive and gratuitous degree, often to conceal the truth or deceive or exclude outsiders. Various types of jargon notorious for obstructing rather than facilitating communication are given names often appended with -ese or -speak, such as bureaucrateseor corporate-speak.

7. Lingo

This term vaguely refers to the speech of a particular community or group and is therefore loosely synonymous with many of the other words in this list.

8. Lingua Franca

A lingua franca is a language often adopted as a common tongue to enable communication between speakers of separate languages, though pidgins and creoles, both admixtures of two or more languages, are also considered lingua francas.

9. Patois

Patois refers loosely to a nonstandard language such as a creole, a dialect, or a pidgin, with a connotation of the speakers’ social inferiority to those who speak the standard language.

10. Pidgin

A simplified language arising from the efforts of people speaking different languages to communicate is a pidgin. These languages generally develop to facilitate trade between people without a common language. In time, pidgins often evolve into creoles.

11. Slang

A vocabulary of terms (at least initially) employed in a specific subculture is slang. Slang terms, either invented words or those whose meanings are adapted to new senses, develop out of a subculture’s desire to disguise — or exclude others from — their conversations. As US society becomes more youth oriented and more homogenous, slang becomes more widespread in usage, and subcultures continually invent new slang as older terms are appropriated by the mainstream population.

12. Vernacular

A vernacular is a native language or dialect, as opposed to another tongue also in use, such as Spanish, French, or Italian and their dialects as compared to their mother language, Latin. Alternatively, a vernacular is a dialect itself as compared to a standard language (though it should be remembered that a standard language is simply a dialect or combination of dialects that has come to predominate).h must be motivated by questions that can be answered in an approved scientific way.

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       Denotation connotation and implication

1. What is denotation 

     The denotative meaning or the meaning of denotation is the meaning in the natural nature explicitly. This natural meaning is the meaning of what it is. Denotative is a sense in which a word is objectively conceived. Also often denotative meanings are called conceptual, denotational meanings or cognitive meanings as seen from another angle. Basically the same as the referential meanings because the meaning of denotation is commonly given explanations as meaning in accordance with the results according to sight, smell, hearing, feelings, or other experiences.

• Example..

1. Brain shrimp can not be eaten because the head of shrimp contains dirt.
2. After the event is over, Budi and Adi roll up the mat.

2. What is connotation

     Understanding Connotative Meaning

According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI), the meaning of connotation is a cultural or emotional meaning that is subjective and inherent in a phrase. In other words, the meaning of connotation is a phrase or word that has a meaning of the word that is not actually because of its use in the sentence. Connotation also has two types of positive connotation meaning and the meaning of negative connotation. The meaning of positive connotation is the meaning of flattery in the meaning of negative connotation is a reproach or satire.

• Examples of Connotative Meaning

1. Budi is a hands-on child to all his friends. (Light hand means to help)
2. Ani is a very friendly and humble village flower. (Kembang desa means adored girl)

                                 Thank you☺☺☺

Randai is a folk theater tradition of the Minangkabau ethnic group which incorporates music, singing, dance, drama and the martial art of silat. Randai is usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals, and complex stories may span a number of nights. It is performed as a theatre in the round to achieve an equality and unity between audience members and the performers. Randai performances are a synthesis of alternating martial arts dances, songs, and acted scenes. Stories are delivered by both the acting and the singing and are mostly based upon Minangkabau legends and folktales. Randai originated early in the 20th century out of fusion of local martial arts, story telling and other performance traditions. Men originally played both the male and female characters in the story, but now women have also participated.

Review article semantics my friend Ayu anggita

branches of smantics

Sense and Reference It has been explained earlier that signs refer to concepts as well as to other signs. A sign is a symbol that indicates a concept. This concept is the reference, which refers in turn to some object in the real world, called the referent. The relationship between linguistic items (e.g. words, sentences) and the non-linguistic world of experience is a relationship of reference. It can be understood by the following diagram given by Ogden and Richards: The objects in the real world are referents, the concept which we have of them in our minds is the reference and the symbol we use to refer to them is the word, or linguistic item. As we have seen, we can explain the meaning of a linguistic item by using other words. The relation of a word with another word is a sense-relation. Therefore, sense is the complex system of relationships that holds between the linguistic items themselves. Sense is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations, i.e. relations within the system of the language itself, such as similarity between words, opposition, inclusion, and presupposition. Sense relations include homonymy, polysemy, synonymy and antonymy. Homonyms are different items (lexical items or structure words) with the same phonetic form. They

differ only in meaning, e.g. the item ‘ear’ meaning ‘organ of hearing’ is a homonym of the item ‘ear’ meaning ‘a stem of wheat’. Homonymy may be classified as: (a) Homography: a phenomenon of two or more words having the same spellings but different pronunciation or meaning, e.g. lead /led/ = metal; lead/li:d/ = verb. (b) Homophony: a phenomenon of two or more words having the same pronunciation but different meanings or spellings, e.g. sea/see, knew/new, some/ sum, sun/son. It is difficult to distinguish between homonymy and polysemy as in polysemy, the ‘same’ lexical item has different meanings, e.g. ‘bank*’, ‘face*’: Two lexical items can be considered as synonyms if they have the same denotative, connotative and social meaning and can replace each other in all contexts of occurrence. Only then can they be absolutely synonymous. For example, ‘radio’ and ‘wireless’ co-existed for a while as synonyms, being used as alternatives by speakers of British English. But now, ‘wireless’ is not used frequently. What we consider as synonyms in a language are usually nearequivalent items, or descriptive items. For example, ‘lavatory’, ‘toilet’, ‘WC’, ‘washroom’ are descriptive or near-equivalent synonyms in English. Antonyms are lexical items which are different both in form as well as meaning. An antonym of a lexical item conveys the opposite sense, e.g. single-married, good-bad. But this gives rise to questions of what is an opposite or contrasted meaning. For example, the opposite of ‘woman’ could be ‘man’ or girl’ since the denotation of both is different from that of ‘woman’. Thus we need to modify our definition of antonymy. We can say that some items are less compatible than other items. There can be nearness of contrast or remoteness of contrast. Thus ‘man’ or ‘girl’ is contrasted to ‘woman’ but less contrasted than ‘woman’ and ‘tree’. In this sense, ‘woman’ and ‘man’ are related, just as ‘girl’ and ‘boy’ are related, in spite of being contrasted. Other meaning-relations of a similar nature are: mare/stallion, cow/bull, ram/ewe etc., all based on gender distinctions. Another set of meaning relations can be of age and family relationship: father/son, uncle/nephew, aunt/ niece. In this, too, there are differences in the structures of different languages. In Urdu, for instance, gender distinction or contrast may be marked by a change in the ending of the noun (e.g. /gho:  a:/gho: i:/ for ‘horse’ and ‘mare’ respectively) or, in some cases, by a different word (e.g. /ga:e/bael/ for ‘cow’ and ‘bull’ respectively). In English, there are usually different words to mark contrast in gender except in a few cases (e.g. elephant, giraffe). The evolution of a complex system of sense relations is dependent on the way in which the objects of the world and the environment are perceived and conceptualized by the people who make that language. For example, Eskimos have many words related in meaning to ‘snow’ because snow in different forms is a part o their environment. In English, there are only two ‘snow’ and ‘ice’, while in Urdu there is only one: ‘baraf’. This reflects the importance that a particular object or phenomena may have for a certain community. Another kind of sense-relationship is hyponymy. Hyponymy is the relation that holds between a more general and more specific lexical item. For example, ‘flower’ is a more general item, and ‘rose’, ‘lily’, etc. are more specific. The more specific item is considered a hyponym of the more general item—’rose’ is a hyponym of ‘flower’. The specific item includes the meaning of the general. When we say ‘rose’, the meaning of ‘flower’ is included in its meaning. ‘Rose’ is also hyponymous to ‘plant’ and ‘living thing’ as these are the most general categories.

Article Review

SEMANTIC

This article is review from Mr. Ahmad Zam Zam , M.Hum.

11.     Definition

Semantic is the study of meaning in language. Semantic is a branch of linguistics therefore still associated with the semantic syntax, fonology even morphology. It has been mentioned in theory L.Chafe Wallace theorized in 1970 that the semantic generative grammar. The semantics are generally regarded as the study of meaning in language. But the field of logic, it discusses the general semantic reference and truth conditions of linguistics in the language. Therefore, the discussion of semantics neighbor should discuss the meaning of containing references in the context of language